"The feminization of agriculture in India is a consequence of male out-migration rather than women's empowerment." Discuss.

Maria Mies has argued that women's entry into the Indian labour force was "driven more by necessity than emancipation". This is especially true for the agricultural sector.

Feminization of agriculture as consequence of male outmigration

1.> Male out migration, driven by - (i) industrial sector jobs (ii) mechanisation of agriculture (iii) informal economies Led to feminization of agriculture, with more than 50% of agricultural labour being female.

2.> Jan Breman → distertiary effect of rural-rural migration: (i) men migrate to green revolution areas of Punjab & Haryana (ii) mechanization → fewer, high wage jobs monopolized by men (iii) E-India → labour intensive, unpaid labour undertaken by women. Egs rice sapling transplantation.

3.> Feminization of poverty | Bina Agarwal points out that though women perform ~ 58% of all agricultural labour, they only have access to ~ 13% of all land titles. This leads to the following - (i) less access to agricultural loans → substandard inputs → stagnating incomes. (ii) income accrues to the husband/owner of land → curtailed financial autonomy (iii) undervaluation of women's contribution and limited negotiating power.

4.> Work-related stratification | Karuna Ahmed points out that women occupy the least paying, most precarious jobs with least job security.

5.> Compounding effect of globalization | Utsa Patnaik has argued that price instability has marginalized the agrarian worker, as market integration pits Indian agriculture sector against better supported agricultural sector in western countries. This has a disproportionate impact on female labourers - (i) as poorest & most marginalized agrarian labourer → most impacted (ii) low skill set → prone to automation (iii) price decline → farmers cut labour costs → female workers impacted first and worst.

However, feminization of agriculture is not only caused by male out migration -

1> Rational resource allocation theory : female labourers employed because they cost less → most of them get near about poverty line living wage.

as customary role → tea plantations, paddy cultivation etc.

However, it can be said the feminization primarily takes place in East India, North East & hilly states etc. To that extent it is primarily driven by male migration to urban centres or other rural areas offering better wages.

This is complemented by ouster of women from agriculture in mechanization-based work in green revolution areas (Maria Mies). There women have lost agency, financial independence, and find themselves trapped in house-wife carer roles.