Animesh Pradhan: Sociology I answer copy

a) Zeitlin in his 'Ideology and Development of sociological Theory' notes that sociology emerged as a byproduct of Enlightenment marked by modernity and scientific values.

b) Intellectuals like Monstequien and Rousseau advocated the relevance of individual thoughts, scientific ideas and rationalism that focused on studying of sociology from a scientific

point of view - as an outcome of modern

Reinassance.

c) Early sociologists like Comte, Spencer and Durkheim used the forces of 'Enlightenment' to provide the answers of the chaos created by forces of modernity in Europe in 18th century.

d) TB Bottommore notes intellectual ante -cedents like philosophy of history, biological theory of evolution and social survey that led to emergence of sociology.

philosophy of history - to understand the evolution of society from historical perspective (Marx, Durkheim)

Biological theory of evolution - Darwin's theory influenced Spencer in 'social evolution'

Social survey focussing on positivism school of thought

Hence, sociology as a science established due to the modernity and rational undercurrents of Enlightenment.

b. While the early sociologists like Comte/Durkheim propounded a ‘macro approach’ through positivistic school of thought and later sociologists like Weber/Blumer/Schutz/Garfinkel focused on ‘micro-perspective’, critical sociologists focus on emancipatory role of sociology.

Main features of critical social science →

a) Focus on Norms/Values/Constraints - Harvey focuses his study based on exploitative forces on social objects and sociology’s role in being change-oriented.

b) Reflexive sociology - that focuses on the current conditions’ study to be inadequate and sociology has a moral responsibility to make the subjects

aware about their marginalised conditions.

c) Utilize face validity - Patty Lather conceptudised the concept where critical sociologists involve the subjects in their subjects and make them realise about its validity.

d) Methodologies - While conventional sociologists utilised positivistic tool, later emphasised on critical ethnomethodology tools like comparative analysis, life histories and participant observation.

Eg: Ken Plummer study of Bogdan's study of transexualism focused on their demands for equality.

e) Limitations - Hammersely criticise the school as there exists no one truth, conflicting ideologies can coexist.

Hence, Phil Carspecken emphasises the utility of the school in revealing the inequalities that led to popular movements (feminist movements).

c) GA lundberg defines hypothesis as a tentative generalisation involving variables whose validity must be tested.

Role of theory in building hypothesis

Importance of theory in building hypothesis

Theory is the meaningful ordering and evaluation of facts

that helps in building hypothesis.

Ex Fact → condition of women deteriorating in capitalistic society

Theory → Relation between growth of capitalism, poverty and gender

Hypothesis → Growth of money economy → women marginalisation

The hypothesis need to be tested across various contexts:

• Giddens → more work for women, liberaty, patriarchy reduced
• Naila Kabeer → 'race to bottom', reserve army + violence in workplace (Walby)

The hypothesis cannot be true because in faults in theory, this leads to →

Hence, sociology uses the utility of theory and hypothesis in building laws and understand society holistically.

d) Code on Social security (2020) defines 'gig economy' as the sector of work existing outside the formal employee-employer relationship.

Gig economy leads to informalization of labour

a) Giddens note the rise of freelancing and gig economy leading to low job security, lack of social security and unfair 'hire and fire policy'.

b) Andre Gorz in his degradation of work that creates 'non clau of non wokers' explains that gig economy has low potential for labour unions so bargaining power is low.

c) Growing polarization - NITI Aayog's report that accounted for ~2.35 Crore gig workers in India stated that concentration of gigworkers happening in elite jobs (Consultancy, fashion) and low-end (delivery, construction etc.)

d) Sharat Bhowmik emphasises on 'informal employment' where formal economy is employing gig workers without due benefit Ex Harsh conditions of Zomato/Swiggy delivery men

e) Graham & Anwar notes that freelancers are burdened with huge work - low wages.

Hence, with new labour reforms, gig economy should be protected with better laws to bring in social security

e) While the earlier conception of gender was heavily focused on biological forces (Tiger & Fox), the rise of feminist school of thought explains gender to be culturally made.

Sociologists like Parsons and Murdock emphasised on the biological features of women and affirmed the gender stereotypes, but Ann Oakley refutes them by noting gender is and should not be biologically reinforced rather culturally built [shows gender is not what we have, but that we do].

Feminists like Jean Holmes and Karen Armstrong attributes the religious features to propagate male dominating

ideologies that make women less strong and docile.

→ Uma Chakravarty condemns the 'Pativrata' concept where women's sacrifices are glorified where the 'concept of gender' is reinforced with stereotypes.

→ In the study of family, David Cooper and Leonard notes that family conditions one about the 'concept of gender' with traditional biological stereotypes.

→ In the economic sector, Karuna Ahmed notes 'pink collarization' that tactfully attaches specific jobs to women and Sylvia Walby notes patriarchy as ideology/action in conceptualising gender roles.