Question 4(a) · 1761 words written
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- Raul Prebisch, Director of United Nations Economic Council for Latin America advocates replace the 'comparative advantage' with 'import-substitution' model as the former has not helped the poor nations much. The poor nations produce agricultural goods, whereas rich produce manufactured goods which perpetuate the exploitation of poor in the hands of rich.
- T.D. Santos advocates, its historical constraints which is the reason for subjugation of poor nation in the globalising world.
- The greatest propounder of Dependency theory, Andre Gunder Frank in his "Development of
- Underdevelopment" categories poor nations as satellites which cater into the needs of rich countries which act as metropolis. The satellites are in turn interested with only surplus that is left after consumption of rich nations which also don't help the poor much as it's used for production of goods & services which are consumed by rich nations.
- Wallerstein in his world system theory: advocates there's not bipolar classification as suggested by Frank, rather there is possibility of mobility from periphery to Semi-periphery as well as core to Semiperiphery. eg:- Britain has slipped from core to Semiperiphery where as USA has maintained his dominant position by sitting pretty in core. Also, less developed nation in past have moved from periphery to Semiperiphery by improving their position. However, although there's mobility possible, but Semiperiphery & periphery cater to the needs of core & this perpetuates their subjugation.
- Bryne Strauss has termed the poor as "sick" - society" which depend on rich's donation for their survival.
- AppaDurai suggests 'deglobalisation' as a process to end the perpetual atrocities faced by poor in hand of rich.
- Indian economists like Amartya Sen discards development as a tool to end the poverty of poor in underdeveloped nation & suggests 'inclusive growth' to cater to needs to masses.
- Hence, dependency theory finds relevance in contemporary globalising society which subscribes to continuing dominance of rich on downtrodden poor nations. (b) 'Hypothesis' is a body of facts whose reliability & validity is not yet established.
- Hypothesis emanates from data collected from research which is used to either construct new theories or falsify the hypothesis constructed by researcher.
- In quantitative research methods, hypothesis are falsified by deductive nature of the research methods. The significance of hypothesis can be illustrated as follows which holds special place in formulating sociological theories :- Step 1 :- The researcher identifies a problem. Step 2 :- He goes for review of the established theories Step 3 :- He goes for designing the data collection method Step 4 :- Subsequently, researcher collects data through research tool which may be qualitative or quantitative Step 5 :- A new hypothesis which is constructed is tested through the collected data Step 6 :- If found significant, the hypothesis may take the form of a new theory, or if falsified, another hypothesis is constructed to generate another theory. Step 7 :- Theories are reviewed by peers to suggest direction for future sociological research. Hence, hypothesis is the required research tool which if proved to be correct, gives the discipline a new body of well established facts to enrich the research methodology.
- Quantitative research method which is objective & deductive help in falsifying hypothesis as well as for generalisation which is greatly favoured by positivists.
- Hypothesis provides direction to proceed through the research in formulation of Sociological theories. (c) Questionnaire :-
- Questionnaire is a set of pre-set questions which are intended to ask to the respondents in a similar fashion to extract information in same order.
- Questionnaire can take place in many forms as below :- (i) Structured interview :- In this style of questionnaire a pre-set question are asked without any deviation from instruction, however, it may have interviewer bias associated with it. (ii) Postal questionnaire :- In this way of questionnaire a set of questions are mailed to respondents to seek reply to the questions. But the inherent shortcoming associated in this method is those who might be interested in the topic may answer, others might SKIP. (iii) Through Telephone :- Generally, marketing firms adopt this method this methods has limited representation as those who don't have telephone facility are excluded from research. (iv) Through email :- This method discards anonymity as the sender's information are revealed. It also has limited representation. (v) Questionnaire to a group :- It's the most simplest of all, but the group members should be prevented from discussing the question among them, otherwise answers may be similar or biased.
- Questionnaire can be used for both qualitative & quantitative research method although the quantitative researchers use it more often.
- It may have some disadvantages like it may lack validity, but high degree of reliability is associated with questionnaire method:
- The same questions can be replicated to test the reliability of data collected.
- The respondents might refuse to give response which throws danger to the research. Hence, questionnaire, although a useful research method has some disadvantages too associated to it. 2(a) 'Value' is a set of ideas which are either classified as desirable or undesirable.
- It operates at 3 levels, (i) Individual level (ii) Community level (iii) Societal level.
- 'Value-neutrality' in sociology is a prized possession, but it's a challenge as faced by many.
- Positivists pitch for value-neutrality in sociology. Since the birth of the discipline, it was highly essential to establish the scientific status of sociology, the founders like Auguste Comte, Emile Durkheim strived for scientific status of the discipline. Positivists advocate 'value-neutrality' can be achieved through 2 ways :- (i) The facts should speak for themselves. (ii) The researcher should not come close to 'research'.
- Auguste Comte describing society's progress through theological, metaphysical & positivist phase argued that Sociology should see social phenomena as objects which can be studied in microscopic level without researcher's own values diluting the research.
- Durkheim used the methods prescribed by Comte in his study of 'Suicide' when he collected quantitative data from hospitals, govt. statistics etc. to form a pure, value-neutral account of his research.
- Although positivists glorify value-neutrality, they caution researchers as it's difficult to practice & a challenge therein.
- Durkheim treats 'social facts as things' & Sociology as objective understanding of objective reality.
- However, through the progress of the discipline, interpretative culture developed in sociology. Through work of Dilthey, Georg Simmel & Weber, who call sociology as 'Subjective understanding of objective reality' in which social reality can be studied from social actor's point of view respecting to the historical & cultural context & meanings & motives actors give to their behaviour.
- Still, they suggest value-neutrality can be practised on research level although value is inherited while researchers choosing his field of research.
- Interpretationists suggest value-neutrality can be achieved by; (i) The researcher should come closer to the researched but should not mix own value while studying them. (ii) facts should not speak for themselves, rather the meanings & motives behind action gain currency.
- Subsequently, interactionists, phenomenologists, ethnomethodologists - they all reject to positivist's approach of value neutrality. They advocate sociology as "subjective understanding of subjective reality" where values of the agents make sense. It's the life world of people & common sense knowledge which have value inherent to it make sociological discourse richer & reflexive. Critical theorists, like feminists advocate value neutrality is non-sensical in sociology as it will not develop society as a whole. They rejected positivism & value neutrality as development of sociology & not society. Hence, value-neutrality is a contested phenomena which is a pivot sociological debate among the scholars of Sociology. (b) 'Social change' refers to the shift in the structure & function of society through a course of time. Early sociologists classifying social statics with social dynamics, as advocated by August Comte, give prominence of 'continuity over change'. They advocate change as progressive which however does not occur quite often. Conforming to social norms & values lead to perpetuation of society.
- However, subsequently scholars of Neomarxism proceed through the path shown by Marx who advocate revolution of proletariats to end the perpetual dominance of 'bourgeoisie'. They give currency to change over continuity.
- There are various factors which calls for social change which are reflected through change in institution of society. Some of the factors can be:- (i) Family :-
- 'Family' is the basic institution which is reflection of social change.
- Family structure, since ancient & primitive times has undergone many changes which denotes that society has undergone change over time.
- In primitive society, no family structure was present. As Morgan describes, as society moved through Savage, barbaric & civilisation stage, polygamy was replaced by monogamy & family held central stage.
- Joint family paved way for nuclear family which may be extended or isolated.
- Now-a-days, there's increasing prominence of single parent household, cohabitation etc which signifies social change through family structure. (ii) Law :- Law, as an social institution has undergone change from repressive to restitutive as advocating Durkheim. Parson calls it as an agent of integration which guide to human personality system & enforces social order. (iii) Religion :-
- Religion holds a prominent place in reflecting social change.
- Church centric highly religious society has gives way to cults, sects & new religious movement as man in modern society has become individualistic & does not subscribe to a single religious faith.
- Wallis, Troeltsch talks about various forms of religion like church, denomination, sects & cults in modern society.
- Religious fundamentalist groups thrives resist change to fortify the boundaries of their religious belief. (iv) Education :-
- Education has progressed through various steps along with taking society with it.
- Church-centric education has been replaced by market-centric education. As Foucault advocates, knowledge is power & it flows through every nook & corner of society & he gives prominence to knowledge-power over state power.
- Christopher Jencks advocates role of edu in promoting values like tolerance, pluralism, discipline which enforces man's belief in modern ideas. (v) Technology :-
- Man has abandoned traditional tools in search of rapid modernity which itself reflects change.
- As Durkheim, Spencer etc have suggested that man in simple society used simple tools whereas in modern complex society man switched over to advance tools for division of labour & maintaining integration & social order.
- As Veblen suggests, conspicuous consumption is result of surplus production through advanced technology.
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Hence, society's progress from traditionality to modernity is reflected through these factors which clearly indicate continuity resides along with change.