Question 1(a) · 1047 words written
Opening
AR Desai in his works like 'Social Backg-round of Indian Nationalism' pioneered conflict approach in understanding Indian society and studied the inherent contradictions.
With an economic deterministic school of thought, he understood the rise of Indian struggle for Independence due to unification of masses as a response to economic deprivation and exploitation by colonial powers.
He attributes the socio-religious reforms as a response to the contradiction in traditional values & modern intellectual ideas.
Debunking the Indological and integrative pictures of Indian village, he highlights Indian village & caste system to be divisive, hierarchical and non-integrative.
His ideas on welfare state was influenced by Marxist school of thought & he noted 'welfare state as a myth' as state policies failed in emancipation of the downtrodden.
He studied the government programmes of land reforms, community development program, cooperatives and noted their failure due to contradictory interests of social groups and the caste ridden social structure.
In his thoughts about education, he notes that education has failed in bringing social mobility as it leds to cultural reproduction of dominant ideologies.
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(b) DN Majumdar defines "tribes to be social groups with territorial affinity with no specialisation, have distinct language & culture, and tendency to maintain social distance from other tribes & castes".
Definitional issues are an obstacle in tribal development
No objective criteria for STs - Ex Dublas in plains in Gujarat have been termed as ST, but Maoris in Chitrakost forests are not backward enough to gain ST status.
Degree of assimilation - SC Dubey's 5 fold classification and Ghurye's 'Hinduised tribe' conception highlight different degree of assimilation ex sentinelese are distant but Gujjars & Bauris have been mainstreamed.
Cultural change - Sahay notes conversion of religion of Sarna to christianity among Oraons community, but various NE tribals maintain totemism & Naturism.
Retribalisation - DN Majumdar notes the rise of retribalisation among various caste groups leading to confusion and implementation of tribal schemes.
Occupational basis - Kosambi notes that tribals who have started ploughing have been perceived as non-tribals leading to issues of social welfare, ex Negis have appreciable representation in civil services.
Inspite of definitional issues, tribes have primitive way of living and need specialised attention as envisioned in Nehru's Panchsheel.
So, Xaxa notes that tribal welfare should not remain as 'constitutional prescription but lived reality'.
(c) Murdock studies marriage and family as social institutions and groups with functions of economic cooperations, socialisation, reproduction & sexual needs fulfillment.
Parsons studies marriage as the alliance between 'male' & 'female' with biological foundations where male is essentially the breadwinner & female have expressive and sensitive role in management of households.
Both institutions are complementary, as Murdock notes that marriages are socially approved institutions to form family that helps in socialisation of children & stabilisation of adult personality (Parsons).
In the study of Iravati Karve who have studied various forms of marriage, the outcome is of family either following patrilineal or matrilineal descent or with patrilocal or matrilocal household.
Pauline Kolenda gives various classification of family like joint, nuclear, substantive nuclear, supplemented nuclear having basis in marriage and divorces.
MS Gore notes the rise in conjugal bonds defining the nature of family - joint or nuclear in modern times, similarly caste endogamy in marriages reinforces caste values in family tradition & lineage.
But today, marriage is no more sacramental institution of family, ex gay relationships without marriage, single households on rise (Rapoport), 'chosen families' with high reliance on friends (Roseneil).
Hence, although complementary, marriage and family face multitude of change due to modernity.
(d) Leela Fernandes explains new middle class in the context of economic Liberalisation, English speaking, urban populace in private company characterised by consumption & not by modesty and understatement (like old middle class).
Old Middle Class constituted as the byproduct of Industrialisation and decomposition of capital/labour (Dahrendorf) who were traders, managers, supervisors distinct from bourgeoisie & proletariat.
Old Middle class was not a part of the dichotomous capitalistic system, but a byproduct of the same, but new middle class (consultants, IT workers etc) are a part of the bourgeoisie system lacking economic ownership.
BB Mishra notes that old middle class in India arose to meet the colonial interests of administration who were professionals and civil servants, but new middle class have risen due to forces of globalisation & modernisation.
Yogendra Singh notes that influence of old middle class is on decline but new middle class is on rise due to forces of modernity, English education & urbanisation.
In terms of affluence, old middle class had negligent power and representation, but TK Oommen notes that new middle class are 'silent harbinger of change'.
Diversity wise, new middle class is heterogenous with new power centres in both rural & urban area (Ananda Kumar) with varied interests. Gurucharan Das note middle class in India is innovative & risk taking who shall influence the pace & direction of social change.
(e) Lorraine Green defines ageing as the process of decline in adaptation to changes in terms of physical, emotional, psychological attributes.
Challenges associated with process of ageing →
Social Exchange Theory notes 'ageism' as a systematic discrimination as old people fail to bring productivity in social exchanges.
Modernisation Theory notes that rapid modernity leads to incapacity of old age people to get accustomed to changes & inventions.
Conflict perspective - Petere Townsend notes that since majority of masses had meagre to save during working days and due to lack of pension, old age people suffer more.
Feminists like Linda Gannon note that women in old age suffer more due to increased widowism, lack of assets and high incidences of health issues.
Nirmala notes increasing diseases among old age women like Breast cancer, Ovarian disorder etc. attributed to unique health requirements of old age women.
Disintegration of family - Prabhat Patnaik notes that old age care was primary function of family but nuclear household tendencies have increased vulnerability.
Panda in his study notes that due to decreasing income & resources, old age people are ignored.
Jayahree Sengupta blames state for not providing univeral health coverage to old aged.
Close
Hence, in spirit of Article-41 (DPSP), both individuals and state need to strive for welfare of old age.