Amar Baghel: Sociology I answer copy

(1) Hypothesis - a tentative generalisation whose validity is yet to be tested. Thus it upholds the scientific principle of verifying, doubting & enquiry.

(2) Method of data collection to be objective & value neutral to avoid biases, subjectivity & assumption of researches

(3) Finding causal analysis to ensure verifiability. (4) Inter-observer validity as tested by peer review. (5) Presenting data in empirical manner to ensure transparency. (6) Test & Retest method to ensure validity & reliability. (7) Giving a generalised theory with universal application thus nomothetic in approach. However, Gouldner suggests that choice of research, hypothesis and interpretation of data suffer from researcher bias thus scientific method not applicable. Overall, still scientific method gives structured analysis of sociological research.

Harry Eckstein defined pressure group as group of people influence government policy & decision without exercising the real power.

Pluralism : Idealized view of pressure group

(1) Robert Salisbury in his interest representation has said pressure group reflect the grievance of diverse group thus reflect pluralist society. (2) Robert Dahl also argued that pressure group ensure multiple loci of power thus control singular, centralized tendencies.

(3) Karl Mannheim equated pressure group as agent of push & pull that ensure demands of plural group is fulfilled. (4) It act as grievance redressal mechanism for different section Eg Humsafar Trust - for interest of minority. (5) Schalte held pressure group held political accountability they force them to act in interest of vulnerables. But, Roberto Michels highlighted the domination of few oligarchs in pressure group. Raymond Aaron also highlighted poor decision making due to pressure group. Overall, pressure group upheld the thesis of dispersed power in society & empower every section of society.

Durkheim defined collective consciousness as a social fact that ensure integration & cohesion in society, in study of religion. He characterised it a psychological feeling of happiness when people come together. Eg Totem worship is due to collective conscience. It also ensure norms & values of society thus ensure integration of society.

Role of collective conscience in maintaining social cohesion (1) It provide sense of identity & belongingness in society.

eg Mechanical solidarity (2) Collective conscience prevent anomie and organised action in society eg Division of labor approved by collective conscience ensure integration & mutual co-dependence. (3) It provide norms, rules thus guide collective action eg Sin, virtue of religion. (4) Violation of collective conscience leads to sanction by society thus it ensure social control.